Summary of included studies
| Study; journal; country | Sample/Subjects | Intervention | Main findings | Kirkpatrick’s level of evaluation | CCAT score (%) |
| Aarons et al.; Implementation Science; USA29 | 12 mental health service team leaders and their staff (n=100) | Supervisors were randomly assigned to the 6-month Leadership and Organisational Change Implementation (LOCI) intervention or to a two-session leadership webinar control condition. The LOCI intervention included a 360° assessment, a 2-day group-based training session, weekly coaching, organisational strategy development and one in-person group booster session. | LOCI participants reported significantly higher feasibility, acceptability and utility of training compared with those in the control condition. LOCI participants also reported significantly greater change in behavioural routines, improvement in leadership behaviours and increased emphasis on evidence-based practice in interactions with supervisees. Supervisee ratings of the LOCI group indicated a greater increase in terms of leader support from baseline to 6 months follow-up relative to the control group. | 3B | 80 |
| Block and Manning; Leadership in Health Services; Canada32 | 92 participants working in acute and community settings. Sample composed of nurses, allied health and support service areas. | Four 2-day courses were developed based on a learning needs assessment conducted with potential participants and their supervisors. Each course included teaching, group discussion, selected readings, experiential learning activities and case studies as well as self-assessment and personal planning tools. | Both participants and their supervisors rated the programme positively in terms of its effect on participants’ confidence and willingness to lead, awareness of leadership opportunities, communication, problem solving, response to conflict and the ability to support their teams through change. However, supervisor ratings of participants were significantly lower than those of the participants themselves. Participants reported increased levels of job satisfaction at 3 months follow-up. | 3B | 53 |
| Bradd et al.; Journal of Health Organization and Management; Australia33 | Allied health professionals including occupational therapy, physiotherapy, social work, speech pathology, dietetics; intervention group n=16, control group n=17 | The South Eastern Sydney Local Health District Allied Health Leadership Development Programme comprised all-day workshops, action learning sets and individual coaching. | Results demonstrated that the programme resulted in enhanced leadership capability, workplace engagement and workplace culture measures and outputs for participants, compared with a control group. Participants were highly satisfied with the course overall. | 3B | 80 |
| Crofts; Intensive and Critical Care Nursing; UK30 | Senior clinical members of staff from critical care teams including nurses, pharmacists, intensivist, occupational therapists and physiotherapists | The programme was 20 single days. Components of the programme included a baseline assessment, personal development, principles of leadership and critical case reviews. | Both participants and stakeholders evaluated the programme positively. The evaluation only sought the views of participants and stakeholders; it did not include any objective measures. The features of the programme that were most highly rated included: critical case reviews, working together on group objectives, meeting members of the Trust executive team and discussing common issues as a group. | 2A | 33 |
| Gordon et al; Social Work in Health Care; USA44 | Social workers (n=57) | Programme of classes included: Leadership for Social Workers (three 1.5-hour classes); Practice-Based Research (six 2-hour classes); Service Grant Development (one 2-hour class) and Writing for Publication (one 1-hour class). | Feedback on the course was very positive. Participants reported that the programme gave them confidence in their work, provided them with a variety of ideas of what is possible in social work and regenerated their excitement for the social work profession. The programme objectives were met for the vast majority of participants. | 3A | 55 |
| Leeson and Millar; Nursing Management; UK59 | Nurse and allied healthcare professional leaders working in a community or community hospital environment (n=66) | Two-day programme covering the 7 Habits of Highly Effective People60 adapted for healthcare.60 Facilitated day 6 weeks later to deliver presentations to demonstrate progress. | Postprogramme audit conducted to get understanding of how delegates' behaviour and perceptions had changed after programme. The programme either met or exceeded expectations. Participants reported they had become more proactive, better at taking responsibility for actions and at prioritising and planning. Participants were required to consider local leadership challenges and instructed to address the challenges using the principles of the 7 Habits. The work they carried out and results of their projects were presented to the rest of the group on the third day about 6 weeks later. | 1 | 38 |
| MacPhail et al; Leadership in Health Services; Australia31 | Medical (n=6), nursing (n=19) and allied health professionals (n=14) currently employed in a large regional health centre in Victoria, Australia | In-house, multidisciplinary clinical leadership programme. Programme elements were reflection, mini-project, external site visit, internal and external speakers and presentations. | Significantly increased willingness to take on leadership roles. Almost half of the participants who completed the first year of the programme had taken on a new leadership role 18 months after the programme. Senior executive feedback was positive especially regarding engagement and building staff confidence. | 3B | 55 |
| Pascal et al; Curriculum, Instruction and Pedagogy; Rwanda39 | Physiotherapists with current involvement in a leadership role (n=71) | The programme included lectures, interactive discussion and explicit empowerment of leadership in small group community projects. Support and mentorship were provided for group activities, projects and presentations. | Groups developed a leadership project proposal. Thirteen project proposals were presented in the final session including community outreach for prevention and management of injury and disability and improving standards of physiotherapy practice in Rwanda. Participants reported that the series of classes and the development of a project fostered leadership skills, empowered them to advocate for patients and their profession and spurred professional growth. | 3A | 65 |
| Woolnough and Faugier; NT Research; UK28 | 32 050 clinical staff have completed the Leading an Empowered Organisation (LEO) study. Results from this study were from interviews conducted with 109 randomly selected participants. | LEO is a 3-day leadership programme designed to equip nurses and allied health professionals with leadership skills. Participants are encouraged to adopt a facilitative style and to foster an environment that supports challenge, growth and development. | Feedback on the programme was generally positive. The majority of participants felt their behaviour/style of work had changed and were able to identify some way in which their working practice had improved since attending the programme. | 3A | 45 |